FRESKA

KOSOVO QUESTION IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY

2023-02-28T12:14:42+01:00

The Congress of Berlin of 1878 was of great importance for the Balkan states as Serbia, Montenegro, Romania and Bulgaria gained independence. Neverthe- less some of these states’ claims were fully satisfied. For instance Serbia didn’t manage to annex Kosovo and Metohija which under the Treaty of Berlin remained under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Serbia which thought these territories to be the «Cradle of Serbian statehood» as Serbian medieval state was located in Kosovo thought it great injustice and started to put effort to annex them. By various means Serbia was trying to expand its influence there as well as win support of the local Serbian population. As time went by some other claimants to Kosovo vilayet emerged, namely Montene- gro which was ruled be an ambitious monarch who wanted to expand his territories and influence and Bulgaria which was mostly interested in Macedonian lands, which were in Kosovo vilayet, but wasn’t sure which territories in the Kosovo vilayet would eventually become part of the Bulgarian state. Moreover the Albanian national move- ment was gaining steam and according to their programmes Kosovo would also be integrated into Albanian independent state. Austria-Hungary and Italy were not in- terested in occupying Kosovo but still wanted to maintain influence in the Balkan re- gion and thus were going to use tensions over Kosovo there for their own benefit. To sum up, at the beginning of the 20th century Kosovo problem ceased to be a merely Serbian matter of interest and transformed into an international issue.

WESTERN BALKANS AND EU ENLARGEMENT - NEW SECURITY TRENDS

2023-03-06T15:10:43+01:00

The subject of this thesis is the current situation in the process of the western Balkan countries joining the European Union, an undertaking made more complicated by the recent conflict in the Ukraine. Comparative analysis, content analysis, inductive and deductive techniques and case studies are among the methods used in the approach to this topic. Multi-criteria analysis has been conducted on the changed decade-long practice of the process of admission of candidate countries to the EU, the granting of candidate status to Ukraine and Moldova by an accelerated procedure and the relation of these changing conditions to the countries of the Western Balkans. In the matrix of changed conditions for privileged countries, the emergence of new security tendencies is becoming evident. The position of the Western Balkan coun- tries is analyzed in relation to these new developments, with the emphasis on almost impossible mission of fulfilling the conditions that are set before them. The paper is additionally interspersed with the presentation of various researches that have obtained results about this security problem. At the end, concluding thoughts, suggestions, recommendations, as well as a forecast of the development of the problem in the future are given. The goal of this scientific paper is to point out the numerous obstacles that the countries of the Western Balkans need to overcome in the accession process, as well as to bring to light that the stated intention of joining and candidate status often result in additional pressures and constantly emerging new conditions given by the EU, which for the countries of the Western Balkans produce a path without a certain end.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNALS AS GLOBAL SUBJECTS OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

2023-02-27T14:45:15+01:00

The creation in 1993-1994 of the first international criminal tribunals (for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda) was an important destructive event in mod- ern international law and international relations. The UN Security Council has gone beyond its powers and, thus acting ultra vires, has established bodies with the com- petence to prosecute citizens of the states of the former Yugoslavia, including heads of state and government. These tribunals, being called “international”, however, did not meet the criteria of internationality in totality. The tribunals were created without the consent of the states in respect of which they were supposed to act. This violated the basic principle of the conciliatory nature of international law. Moreover, in their activities, the tribunals began to apply the sources of international law arbitrarily, as well as to create their own “law”. This “law” also does not meet the criteria of inter- nationality because it was created not by states (nations), but by judges themselves, often contrary to the existed norms of international law. The question arises: what is the place of the so-called “international” criminal tribunals established by the UN Security Council in the modern system of international relations? The main goals of the global governance bodies are: 1) Elimination of objectionable political and military leadership of any states; 2) Destruction of progressive international law; 3) Formation of repressive global law. Examples of the destruction of international law and the formation of global law are the decisions of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia against R.Karadzic, General Mladic, S.Milosevic and others. The activities of international criminal tribunals pose a serious threat to the modern international legal order.

EXTERNAL INTERVENTION AND STABILITY IN SOMALIA

2023-03-06T11:21:06+01:00

When external actors intervene in conflict to oust established authority, their interference oftenprolongs the instability and suffering. This is reminiscent of
events in South-Central Somalia and the conflict has dragged for over two decades. Could peace have been established without foreign interference in Somalia? Was the African Union’s (AU) peace enforcement intervention really necessary? To have ignored the realities on the ground and opting instead to usurp the established authority of the Islamic Courts Union (at the request of the west) set the stage for the protracted conflict witnessed today in Somalia. This study argues that the lives lost and the financial burden of a prolonged conflict would have been avoided if the AU had adopted a Pan-African/indigenous approach in dealing with Somalia. While the ICU might have been yesterday, peace in Somalia is dependent on local initiatives to build the peace as exemplified by the evolution and success of the ICU and not some contrived foreign/external process. Thirty years of foreign intervention have shown that these will not achieve peace in Somalia. Process tracing is adopted as the method of analysis for this study.

THE ROLE OF UBUNTU IN SOUTH AFRICA’S FOREIGN POLICY

2023-03-06T10:28:00+01:00

This article focuses on the role of Ubuntu in South Africa’s foreign policy. Since independence, African intellectuals have tried to develop their own strategies and approaches to solve problems on the continent. These ideas were aimed at rescuing the African younger generation from enslavement by Western culture, to invent new approaches and to reanimate traditional concepts that would contribute not only to the revival but also to the protection of African culture. They were designed to promote traditional values both within the African continent and globally, to be the antithesis of Eurocentrism, to carve new Afrocentric ideas from their own historical experience and current conditions, socio-economic priorities, with African interests at their center. Among modern concepts aimed at protecting Africans and promoting the African position on the global arena is the traditional philosophical system
of Ubuntu. It is the ideas of Ubuntu that have been adopted by South African politicians back in the late 90s and formed the basis of South Africa’s foreign and domestic policy. In 2011, the White Paper “Building a Better World: Ubuntu Diplomacy” was published, proclaiming the promotion of a multipolar, just and equitable world order and the desire for development and prosperity in Africa as one of its main theses. South Africa was the first state of the continent to base its foreign policy document on one of the main codes of African identity: Ubuntu. This gave the foreign policy document an African character.The Republic of South Africa presents a unique example of an attempt to implement into state strategy a philosophical concept that is a defining element of African identity, a significant part of the traditional culture for more than 350 million people living almost all over sub-Saharan Africa. The notion of Ubuntu is also reflected in the state documents of the Congo, the Republic of Chad, Uganda, as well as Kenya (harambei). By promoting the Ubuntu philosophy, South Africa claims the existence of African values, spreading their importance in the international space through various instruments of public diplomacy. Various magazines, radio stations and a national Ubuntu Awards have been created. All these tools are aimed at informing and sensitizing the public about South Africa’s foreign policy, promoting a multipolar world and establishing an alternative model to the Western
system of individualism.

THE EUROPEAN UNION IN THE PROCESS OF CURRENT GEOPOLITICAL RECOMMENDATIONS OF POWER RELATIONS

2023-03-06T09:58:37+01:00

Military interventionism is a risk with unforeseeable consequences for the international order and its security. Catastrophic potentials, primarily military power, generated in foreign policy by major powers in order to realize their national interests are a great danger of permanent militarization of international politics.The war in Ukraine initiated significant changes that will remain as building blocks of the future defense role of the European Union (EU). It may gradually increase the EU’s ability to intervene in complementarity with the NATO alliance, which is a long-standing ambition that has largely remained an aspiration until now. Also, the war accelerates transformations in EU foreign policy because Brussels is forced to adapt to the new geopolitical reality. This could reinforce the trend in Europe to emphasize a strong EU as a protective factor for European countries. Bearing in mind that it is a geographically inseparable part of Europe, the Balkans, and especially the area of Serbia, conveniently served to absorb a multitude of externalized political, ideological and
cultural frustrations that stem from tensions and contradictions inherent in regions and societies outside the Balkans. Also, it is very important to highlight the place and role of the Balkan countries in this reorganization of ’ the power relations of the great powers. From concrete European, Eurasian and global centers of geopolitical power, the Balkans are viewed from a different geographical perspective. Bearing in mind that it is a geographically inseparable part of Europe, the Balkans, and especially the area of Serbia, conveniently served to absorb a multitude of externalized political, ideological and cultural frustrations that stem from tensions and contradictions inherent in regions and societies outside the Balkans.

THE IMPACT OF RUSSIA’S SPECIAL MILITARY OPERATION IN UKRAINE ON THE ARAB WORLD

2023-03-02T14:40:25+01:00

In this article, the author considers the Arab reaction to the conflict between Russia and Ukraine and studies the economic consequences of these events. In the course of his work, the author separates politics and economics and also divides the Arab countries into several groups. In the political aspect, the Arab countries are divided into allies loyal to Russia, those states that want to sit on two chairs and countries that want to distance themselves as much as possible from the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. The study revealed that Russia has few loyal allies in the Arab East and most countries try to maintain neutrality in order to maintain ties with all participants in the international system. In the economic sphere, the author also sees three groups, but he divides them in a different way. The article highlights rich countries, a state with a weak economy and prone to crisis, as well as Arab countries whose crisis has been aggravated by cattle since the beginning of this conflict. The scientific article reflects that the consequences of the embargo on the export of grain from Moscow and Kyiv created an extremely negative situation in North Africa and the Middle East, from which many countries are actually facing a threat to food security and an increase in the number of hungry people. In conclusion, the author comes to the conclusion that this conflict is extremely unfavorable for the Arab East. In fact, in the
interests of the country of the Arab East, the peaceful coexistence of Russia and the European continent would not force individual countries to take sides and become
someone’s enemy.

REASONS FOR THE INTRODUCTION, EFFECTS AND ROLE OF MULTILATERAL ECONOMIC SANCTIONS IN A MULTIPOLAR WORLD

2023-03-02T14:19:21+01:00

The aim of the paper is to analyze international sanctions in the third decade of the 21st century. International sanctions are non-violent actions that individual states undertake against other states to force them to change certain foreign and domestic policy aspects that are considered unacceptable. Sanctions, introduced by one country, or an international organization are divided into unilateral and multilateral. Sanctions are usually divided into three forms: diplomatic (restriction or complete termination of diplomatic relations), economic (usually related to the prohibition of trade, usually related to weapons), and military sanctions. The aim of the paper is to analyze the current economic multilateral sanctions against the Russian Federation. The purpose of the introduction of sweeping sanctions is to try to overthrow the current government, which made it impossible to implement the policy that led to the introduction of the sanctions. Descriptive and comparative methods and scientific articles were used in the paper together with announcements by regulators, websites of relevant institutions, books, etc. Data on monthly oil and gas production, exports, inflows, and outflows of capital, mandatory financial reports of large companies, data on the monetary base of the central bank, data on direct foreign investments, and data on lending are observed. The paper shows that the general public is actually deprived of a large number of essential statistical data that was updated on a monthly basis until February 2022. Namely, one of the key reasons why there is doubt about the effectiveness of sanctions is that not enough relevant economic indicators are coming from Russia. Instead, optimistic Russian economic analyses, forecasts, and projections are transmitted. The work indicates that there are certain misconceptions among experts and the general public regarding sanctions. The conclusion is that certain sanctions, such as bans related to agricultural products and artificial fertilizers, have been relaxed. However, all sanctions are introduced to hurt the country and lead to regime change. The paper raises numerous questions arising from the fact that there is great uncertainty that has led to a slowdown in economic activity at the global level.

THE AFRICAN EXARCHATE OF THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH (ROC): REASONS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT AND PROSPECTS OF FURTHER EXPANSION

2023-02-28T15:19:50+01:00

The article examines the recent (12/29/2021) establishment of the African Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC). The setting up of the ROC’s African Exarchate is related to the situation in Ukraine and was, particularly, was driven by the decision made by the Alexandrian Orthodox Church (AOC) to recognize the autocephaly (independence) of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine (PCU), and by the subsequent rupture of relations between the AOC and the ROC. An analysis of the events preceding the establishment of the ROC’s African Exarchate, the positions of the AOC and the ROC, as well as the expansion strategy, may shed light on the prospects of the African Exarchate of the ROC.

THE ARAB SPRING AND SECURITY CHALLENGES IN AFRICA: FROM DECOLONIZATION TO NEOCOLONIALISM

2023-02-28T14:16:04+01:00

North Africa and the Sahelian zone have experienced the emergence of terrorism such as Boko Haram since 2011, the presence of Daesh in Libya and insecurity in the Sahel. The emergence of insecurity in the Sahel was facilitated by the weapons delivered to the Libyan rebels by France in 2011 during the battle of Tripoli led by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with the aim of overthrowing Muammar Gaddafi. The Arab revolutions were supported by the United States and Europe with the aim of recolonizing the Arab world for the benefit of the Western bloc by seizing oil resources, particularly in Libya. The hopes expected during the popular uprisings have not been realized, the situation is disappointing for people who saw in the Arab Spring a possibility of emancipation of people who lived under authoritarian regimes. The United States and Europe share responsibility for the chaos and general insecurity orchestrated by the Arab Spring. It is the result of the imperialist policy of Europe and the United States towards nations possessing enormous natural resources and challenging the Western order. The idea of democratization of the Arab world has become for Europeans an element of colonization.

CYBERTERRORISM IN AFRICA – EXAGGERATED THREAT OR WORTHY FOE?

2023-03-06T15:22:03+01:00

For many decades, the validity of the concept of cyberterrorism has been questioned. Academics have pondered whether this idea should be regarded as “fact or fancy”. Over time, development, globalization and connectivity have led one to veer towards the thought that this should be fact. However, various challenges are posed: The standalone concept of terrorism is in itself highly contested, and academics have yet to agree on a single definition of the term. Secondly, almost any form of modern threat can in the current age be studied with the added prefix “cyber-”. This raises the question of strategic approaches when combating things like cyberterrorism. The question arises: In how many ways do, and should, these approaches differ from the counterterrorism measures taken against traditional, physical terrorism, and where is a line drawn in the proverbial sand between terrorism, cyberterrorism, crime and cybercrime? In an effort to demarcate the scope and labelling of attacks as cyberterrorism and not necessarily cybercrime, academics have added the element of political motivation and fear to the young and already contested definition of cyberterrorism. This would mean that one of the only aspects differentiating cyberterrorism from terrorism is the use of information technology. This paper questions the validity of the term and threat of cyberterrorism – especially in an African context. With Africa’s limited use and penetration of information technology, the question arises whether this is really a new threat, or simply a natural evolution of the age-old threat of terrorism. Terrorists will always use the latest and best technology and means to their disposal; this research paper aims to understand whether that justifies a completely new concept in African security research.

GLOBALIZATION AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE MULTIPOLAR WORLD AS REALITY OR IDEOLOGY

2023-02-27T14:57:53+01:00

This paper revolves around the question “Is our society really short - sight- ed to that extent to choose the road of self - destruction”. The analyses conducted for the purpose of this paper are trying to check two points of view providing different answers to this question. The first optimistic view is confident that it is possible to overcome the situation considering the capacity of the societies in the Western Bal- kans as a result of the increase of the discrepancies of the current systems and the degree of economic activity. The second, pessimistic view interprets the situation in terms of the initial insufficiency of resources that will cause reduction of the interest and motivation for changes in the society towards technological and social develop- ment. These two opposing views, two visions for the future, pose a question that we must answer if we want to understand what our future holds. Our efforts towards the answer will teach us how to create proper responses in the economic and political systems and in what manner they will influence the institutions and the population in different countries.The following questions are of essential and sophisticated nature as they focus on the way of understanding and interpreting the fast pace, world and international relations today, which as a whole represents a basis for the future growth and development of every society. How to implement the whole procedure and how to ensure overall satisfaction? How to convince the manufacturers, consumers, society in terms of finding a proper and permanent method that will enable entrance into and participation in the global economy? How to choose and create an efficient system for change of global processes, developed on the actual data bases? How to benefit from our own steps and measures taken? How to accept and how to select a strategic global economic partner?Open mindedness, public exposure, liberalization, integra- tion and cooperation are major reasons for the growing interdependence of countries that constitute the chain of global perspective or future and the open economy of the world, where increasing knowledge is invested, rather than raw material and labor - intensive efforts. Therefore, the focus of this paper is global economy, technological and IT globalization, global culture, globalization of countries and new global order.

THE EU, CHINA AND AFRICA: COOPERATION IN THE SPHERE OF SECURITY

2023-03-06T14:28:42+01:00

One of the trends currently observed in world politics is the growing global influence of China and African countries. These actors are beginning to make an ever greater contribution to the formation of a new – multipolar – world. This trend is of particular importance in relation to Africa – a continent that is experiencing permanent political instability and an associated lag in economic development. The main security problems in Africa include armed conflicts between certain groups of the population for access to natural resources; clashes between tribal and confessional communities; the proliferation of Islamic and Christian terrorist groups; electoral crises; piracy. While the EU retains its role as the main trade and economic partner of African countries and also cooperates with the latter in the field of security much more than other international players, China’s aspiration to become a global power prompts Beijing to participate more actively in solving security problems of the continent. Although most agreements signed between the PRC and African countries focus on trade, economic and social relations, the growing interdependence between national interests of China and domestic African politics encourages Beijing to reconsider its approaches to interaction with particular African regions. Moreover, since the participation of European states in peacekeeping missions has been gradually decreasing since the mid-1990s, the role of developing countries, including China, in ensuring security on the African continent has steadily increased. Expanding security cooperation in the EU-China-Africa format is a European initiative, but trilateral cooperation is still limited, primarily due to a noticeable difference in the approaches of China and the EU to Africa. Nevertheless, it is gradually being established in the format of joint participation in peacekeeping operations, as well as in the context of the fight against piracy and terrorism.

TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES IN THE MODERN SYSTEM WORLD ORDER: FEATURES AND PROSPECTS

2023-02-27T14:32:11+01:00

The modern system of the world order is a synthesis of the Yalta–Potsdam system and the onset of the Anglo-Saxon civilization after the victory in the Cold War. The pressure of the West and the resistance to this process determine the trans- formational character of the modern era. The confrontation between the tendency to assert multipolarity and the line oriented towards violent unipolarity needs to be com- prehended. Globalization of the world under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon center and information maneuvering by it, gave rise to the phenomenon of a given political transformation of the desired territories from centers of power. According to Atlantic political strategists, these territories are defined as nodal in the attack on the inter- ests of a strategic enemy. In the nodal regions of the earth, new orbits of influence, plexuses of forces and interests, springs of enemy coverage are being formed. The de- stabilization of states created in the XX century, given spaces, territories requires not only a constant reaction of the opponent to protect their sovereignty, the necessary points of support for the stability of self-sufficient centers, but elevates the regions of the earth and individual countries to the rank of responsibility, defining them as vital territories. The tension of the international situation is revealed as a constant factor. The reality of the actors’ relationships is becoming mutually exhausting actions, the consequence of which may be economic exhaustion, military-political mistakes, self- destruction, transformation of the weak in order to further absorb them. The actions of the Russian Federation to strengthen statehood taken in 2022 were a revelation for the West. They declared that the vector of offensive tactics against Russia has been put to an end. The Russian Federation has chosen an offensive position to protect national sovereignty and ensure the stability of the country in the surrounding world. The new tactic makes adjustments to the system of traditional perception of political limology, the practice of looking at the system of borders approved by international treaties. Anti-Russian political processes, which have been actively developing in Ukraine for more than thirty years, could not stop at the demarcation line. They influence not only the EU policy, but also the domestic political situation in the country. It is known that borders symbolize the socio-political practice of spatial differentiation. The whole history of Europe is the history of the redistribution of borders. They oc- curred when the polarity in the world is changing. The transformation of the world under the influence of the United States and NATO after the collapse of the socialist bloc is aimed precisely at this.

DECOMPOSITION OF THE EUROPEAN REGIONAL SECURITY COMPLEX: THE NEW IRON CURTAIN

2023-03-06T11:07:44+01:00

The theory of regional security complexes was developed by the Copenhagen School of Security from the end of the last century and the beginning of this century. Although this theory was partially abandoned by its creators, it has received considerable attention in modern security studies to this day. The European security complex was the focus of the Copenhagen School, and it occupies a significant place in the theories created in the later period. This paper is an attempt to analyze the European security complex in the conditions of new geopolitical turmoil in the world and Europe after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, especially on the example of the Western Balkan security sub-complex. The basic hypothesis from which the paper was based is that after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, a new world order is being created, which will especially affect the European security complex and the Western Balkan regional security sub-complex, as part of it. The key claims and unique conclusion of the work is that a new „iron curtain” is being created in Europe from the Atlantic to the Baltic and the Black Sea, which will primarily determine the position of the Western Balkan regional security sub-complex.

THE ROLE OF CONTEMPORARY RADIO AS A MEDIUM IN SOCIAL PROCESSES

2023-03-06T10:08:16+01:00

Radio is present everywhere. We hear him: in a car, in a shop, offices and factories, on the street, in the park, on the mountain and on the beach; and at any time of the day: morning, noon, at night ... During his entire history, he worked successfully to prove that he possesses an extraordinary ability to adapt to new social, economic and media conditions. The subject of research in the paper is whether the radio stations will survive, in the flood of “new media”, or will they quit? The key advantages of radio, compared to other media, are usually related to information programs that are faster, cheaper, more accessible at all times of the day and night, at any place (transistor technique). In that sense, radio did not have any information in the sphere of information, and today there is no point, especially when it is able, besides facts, to offer and gain the impression of presence or participation in the event (live broadcasts). The aim is to show that professional and high-quality change of program contents can survive on the media sky. In contemporary radio programs, documentary, informative, educational, dramatic and artistic, musical and entertainment elements are intertwined. That’s why modern radio becomes “radio for everyone,” not just “radio for everyone”. On the future of the radio, however, there is no decisive influence on technology that enables communication by means of radio waves, but there is a “society”, ie, listeners who search for a radio station on the radio.

THE BALKANS IN A MULTIPOLAR WORLD - PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES

2023-03-02T14:48:58+01:00

The international relations of the 20th century were largely characterized by the balance of power, and it could be said, a balance of fear, of two opposing alliances. Precisely these two centers of power ,the USA and the USSR led to division within the system of the entire international community. However, the breakup of the USSR, the emergence of new states, the end of the Cold War also led to the end of bipolarity and the emergence of unipolar world. The only remaining hegemon the USA ,using all its available resources as well as the resources of their “followers” disrupted the system of power balance in their favor. That disruption of the power balance system was most bloodily manifested in the Balkans as part of the European continent and a kind of connection between worlds. Regardless of the large resources available, both the “ hard” and the “soft” powers, the USA could not completely bring the Balkans under their control. Changes in the international relations we live in, question the current order based on globalization and one hegemon. However, this very hegemon, using all resources selflessly, is trying to preserve its order by enabling itself and its followers to play the role of “ the master of the world” and assigning itself eternal world policeman role. Throughout the globe, questions are being raised about the value of global order and the USA’s power as the sole global power. By shifting the economic flows to the East, e.i. to the Asia-Pacific part of the world, Western hegemons are slowly becoming naked in their imperialistic interests. Re-questioning the power of the “world policeman” is reflected on those parts of the world that are at the junction of “different worlds”. One such part of the world is certainly the Balkans. Therefore, the theme and the aim of this paper is to point out the importance of the Balkans in terms of power projection of key global and regional factors of international relations at the begin- ning of the new millennium. By analyzing influences of global and regional factors of international relations, it can be stated that peoples on the Balkans already live in a multipolar world, which is characterized by great instability due to undefined zones of influence of global and regional players. Defining those areas of interest becomes an imperative for the human civilization survival.

THE FORMATION OF A MULTIPOLAR WORLD ORDER IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE XXI CENTURY - REVIEW OF THE BALKANS

2023-03-02T14:33:42+01:00

The formation of a multipolar world order in contemporary international relations in the 21st century cannot be considered without the geopolitical and geo-economic context in which global processes take place, but also the post-Cold War order in which the germs of world movements towards multipolarism were formed. Ever since the 70s of the 20th century, the modern capitalist system embodied in the power of the Western world has been engulfed in the irreversible process of its resignation after a series of economic, social and moral crises of the neoliberal model of development in the world. In order to avoid the irreversible processes of creating a multipolar world and a fairer world order, the response of the Western (Anglo-Saxon) elite of the United States of America and Great Britain is accordingly long-term planned to preserve the core of their own world domination in the general crisis of the capitalist system and come out even stronger and richer from all the projected processes. Hence the Great Reset - the geopolitical agenda of the World Economic Forum, “green policies” and numerous ideological matrices, which aim to dominate the full spectrum in the system of world relations. In the world context, this means energy poverty throughout the XXI century, food crisis - increase in world hunger, removal of all forms of social control - states that will take care of their own population and manipulation based on engineering and control of media and digital technologies in the creation of a new post-liberal world order. The way out of the historical detour can be in opposing the corporate-technological dystopia and the development of a fairer and safer world order, a multipolar world order, led by the BRICS and SCO countries and the Eurasian powers Russia and China. The solutions for the Balkans are on the trail of major geopolitical transformations in the world, the economic integration of the Balkans and the geopolitical reconstruction of the post-Yugoslav Balkans.

AFRICA POLICY OF THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES: PRIORITIES AND CHALLENGES

2023-03-02T14:09:07+01:00

Since the early 2000s, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has been paying special attention to the development of political and economic ties with African countries. Fundamentally, Africa policy of the UAE has come to reflect imperatives of external and internal security (e.g. countering Iran and the Muslim Brotherhood movement, ensuring food security) and commercial interests of the ruling elite (servicing trade and financial flows between East, West and South). Economic cooperation between the UAE and Africa is already comparable in scale with that of other major partners of the continent – European countries, China, India, and the United States. For some countries in Africa, the UAE has become a leading trading partner. The UAE also increasingly began to act as a direct investor in Africa. Transport, port infrastructure, airports, telecommunications and tourism have become the main areas of application of Emirati investments. The UAE also developed military ties with
Africa. In particular, the UAE engaged in military construction on the Red Sea and in the Gulf of Aden and also intervened in the conflict in Libya. Africa policy of the UAE is characterized by a bold combination of economic and military-political cooperation. The intensive use of mechanisms of soft and hard power by the UAE in Africa has dramatically strengthened the position of Abu Dhabi on the continent, but has also significantly increased political risks as the country has become entangled in Africa’s conflicts and domestic politics.

COLD WAR ADAPTATION MECHANISMS OF WEST AFRICAN STATES IN 1960S-1980S

2023-02-28T14:33:19+01:00

In the wake of independence in 1950s-1960s, the States of West Africa faced the need to choose a foreign policy course under the regional confrontation between Western and socialist countries. For the newly independent countries key issues were relations with their former colonizers, willingness to cooperate with them or the desire to escape their influence, as well as a military and political presence. In addition, West African countries had to choose the degree and format of cooperation with the socialist bloc, depending on the ideological orientation towards the USSR, the United States or the non-alignment policy. Matters of regional and sub-regional leadership ambitions were also highly important. Conversely, despite the commonality of devel-
opment and independence issues, West African countries chose very different strategies in the context of the Cold War. The chosen course depended on the conditions of independence, as well as the availability of resources and regional ambitions. Ivory Coast and Senegal preferred to maintain close military, economic and political ties with France and enjoy its support in regional leadership ambitions. This limited their ties with the USSR and other socialist countries. Liberia in its turn pursued consistent pro-US foreign policy in the 1960s and 1980s, acting as a regional ally in the struggle against communist influence. Guinea, having gained independence before the rest of the French colonies in 1958, found itself in a confrontation with France so its leader-
ship chose to closely cooperate with the USSR. Ghana also actively cooperated with the USSR in the 1960s to promote pan-Africanism and its own regional ambitions. Sierra Leone, on the other hand, pursued a course of pragmatic cooperation and receiving assistance from all major international players, in practice implementing the principles of non-alignment. In general Cold War strategies relevant to small countries used in West Africa attracted presence of external powers and determined their further development and security risks.