SPORTS SCIENCE AND HEALTH

Comparative Analysis of the Immunological Status of Soccer Players at Different Levels of Competition

Željko Sekulić, Slavko Dragosavljević, Jasmin Budimlić, Nikola Ilić — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The aim of this study was to examine the immune status of football players at different competition levels in Bosnia and Herzegovina through the analysis of key hematological biomarkers. The sample included 59 football players from the first, third, and fifth leagues, whose immune parameters were analyzed based on medical records and laboratory findings. The measured parameters included absolute counts of leukocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The results did not show statistically significant differences between players from different leagues, although certain variations in individual biomarkers were observed. These findings suggest that the competition level itself is not a key factor in determining the immune responses of athletes under stable physiological conditions. It is concluded that further research is needed, covering different phases of the training cycle, to better understand the impact of training load and periodization on the immune status of football players.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness Indicators in Young Athletes: Analysis for Personalized Training Programs

Todoroski Kiril, Pushkin Dmitry Sergeevich, Fedorova Elena Yurievna — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

This study investigates the cardiorespiratory indicators of junior athletes (16–18 years old) with a focus on aerobic (AT) and anaerobic (AnT) thresholds, maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), power output, and their relationship with anthropometric parameters. Testing was conducted on 26 triathletes who are candidates for Master of Sport (13 males and 13 females) using a Wattbike ergometer, a Cosmed gas analyzer, and a Polar heart rate monitor. Significant individual and gender differences in functional capabilities were observed. The mean VO₂max values were 68.7±7.2 ml/min/kg for males and 55.1±8.4 ml/min/kg for females (p <0.001), indicating differences in oxygen potential and aerobic power between the groups. The anaerobic threshold was reached at 84.3±6.1% of VO₂max on average, demonstrating high lactate tolerance and efficient use of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The power-to-weight ratio (W/kg) was higher in athletes with lower BMI, with values such as 6.0 W/kg at a BMI of 20.8 and 4.9 W/kg at a BMI of 15.9.
The results highlight the necessity of personalized training programs based on threshold values and anthropometric characteristics. Athletes with low AT/MAX% (<70%) should focus on aerobic endurance development, while those with critically low BMI (<18.5) require adjustments in nutrition and workload to prevent metabolic disorders. This study also proposes a methodology for integrating objective testing data into training programs to optimize young triathletes’ preparation. The findings have practical implications for coaches and sports physiologists working in endurance sports.

Comparative Study : Structured Motor Skill Training and Unstructured Motor Skill Training in Improving Children’s Movement Ability

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

This study aims to compare the effectiveness of structured motor skill training and unstructured motor skill training in improving movement skills in children. The movement skills in question include coordination, balance, strength, and agility. This study used an experimental design with a control group and a treatment group. The group of children was divided into two groups: one group did structured motor skill training and the other group did unstructured motor skill training. The population of this study was children aged 6-8 years. The sample was randomly drawn and consisted of 40 children divided into two groups, each group consisting of 20 children. The exercises were conducted for 6 weeks with a frequency of 2 times per week. Each training session lasted for 40 minutes. Based on the results of data analysis, there is a significant difference between structured motor skill training and unstructured motor skill training in improving motor skills. The group that followed structured motor skill training had an average improvement of 19.75, while the group that followed unstructured motor skill training had an average improvement of 12.85. The mean difference between the two groups was 6.90, indicating that structured motor skill training provided better results. A t-value of 7.71 and a significance value of 0.00 indicated that this difference was highly statistically significant. In addition, the percentage difference between the two types of exercises was approximately 53.7%, indicating that structured motor skill trainingprovided greater improvement compared to unstructured motor skill training. A planned and structured exercise program can result in more significant improvements in children’s coordination, balance, strength and agility. These findings support the use of structured motor skill training programs in the development of children’s movement skills in schools or physical education environments.

Development of an External Load Physical Training Model to Increase Strength in Shotokan Karate

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

This research aims to determine the effect of the developed external load physical training model on efforts to increase strength in the sport of shotokan karate. The participants in this study were 20 shotokan karate athletes and students at Universitas Negeri Makassar. This research was conducted on the Universitas Negeri Makassar campus for three months. The research design used was research and development (R & D) with a purposive sampling technique. We also conducted experiments to measure the effectiveness of the external weight training model we developed. Participants were given treatment in ten meetings. To measure the level of improvement in the treatment given, we conducted a pre-test and post-test in the experimental group. The results showed that the external load physical training model proved effective in increasing strength in shotokan karate athletes. Of course, after going through the revision stages to perfect the training model. Therefore, we recommend that future researchers re-test the effectiveness of the external load physical training model that we developed with other research methods to test the validity and reliability of this training model.

Differences in the Intercorrelations of Psychological Characteristics in Karate Competitors and Representatives

Elena Soklevska Ilievski, Igor Paskoski, Zharko Kostovski — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

This research was conducted on a purposive sample of 32 respondents, 16 karate competitors and 16 karate national team members, men, seniors (according to WKF) from the Republic of North Macedonia. The main objective of this research was to determine the differences in the interrelations between the psychological characteristics of karate competitors and members of the karate national team. A total of 13 variables of psychological characteristics were used in the research: one variable for assessing general intellectual abilities, three variables for assessing specific intellectual abilities, six variables for assessing emotional characteristics, and three variables for assessing motivational dispositions. To determine the differences in the mutual relationships, first the intercorrelation matrices of the competitors and the national team members were calculated, then the Fisher transformed matrices were calculated, i.e. r1 and r2 - the correlation coefficients for each group, Z-statistics that measure the difference between the two correlation values and p-value - which determines whether the difference in the correlation is statistically significant. The results of the Z-test obtained in the study show statistically significant differences only in 5 pairs of variables from the two intercorrelation matrices.

Factor Structure of Motor Abilities in Judo Athletes

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

Regular judo practice over a long period of time affects the optimal development of athletes, improves the structure of their psychosomatic status, and affects their morphological characteristics and motor skills. This research was conducted on a purposive sample of respondents with the primary aim of determining the factor structure of the motor abilities of judokas, using a cross-sectional model. The sample consisted of members of the wider male judo national team of Serbia, specifically 25 cadet and junior competitors between the ages of 15 and 21, who were in final preparations for the European Championships in Lithuania and EYOF in Hungary. The weight categories included in the study ranged from 50 to 100 kilograms. A total of 9 variables were used to assess the motor abilities of judokas, namely: three variables for assessing repetitive strength (push-ups, bench press and trunk hyperextension), three variables for evaluating explosive strength (vertical jump with arm swing, vertical jump after a drop in depth and bench press) and three variables for evaluating isometric strength (arm dynamometry, isometric back strength and isometric leg strength). By applying factor analysis, orthogonal and Varimax solutions and the Guttman-Kaiser criterion, the structure of the examined motor abilities space was determined, which resulted in the extraction of two dominant factors: a mechanism for regulating the intensity of excitation and a mechanism for regulating the duration of excitation.

Improvement in 50-Meter Freestyle Swimming Speed Following 6 Weeks of Plyometric Training in 12-13 Years Old

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

Swimming is a fantastic sport to enjoy at all ages, but increasing swimming speed requires proper training. This research aims to determine the effect of 6 weeks of plyometrics exercise on 50-meter freestyle swimming in the 12-13 age group. This study follows a pre-experimental research design, specifically utilizing a One Group pretest-posttest design. The participants in this research were drawn from the Arwana Swimming Club in Bangkalan, East Java, Indonesia male swimmers aged 12-13 with 20 participants. The Plyometric Training Program was implemented for 6 weeks, scheduled for three days each week. The results obtained from this study indicate a significant value of 0.00, which is less than 0.05. The mean values of the pretest (50.1545) and the posttest (49.264). This conclusion shows that there was an improvement in swimming speed, as evidenced by the lower time recorded in the posttest. Therefore, from this research, 6 weeks of plyometric exercises have a significant effect on the performance of 50-meter freestyle swimming in the 12-13 age group. Consequently, it is recommended that training programs be tailored to address the unique needs of male and female swimmers.

Differences in Morphological Characteristics and Motoric Abilities Between Boys and Girls From II to V Grades of Elementary School

Elvira Nikšić, Faris Rašidagić, Amel Mekić, Edin Beganović, Almir Kalabušić — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The research was conducted on a sample of N=1850 students from the 2nd to the 5th grade of elementary school, of which there were N=989 (53%) male respondents and N=861 (47%) female respondents. The research aimed to determine the differences in morphological characteristics and motor abilities between boys and girls from the 2nd to the 5th grade of elementary school. The descriptive statistical method and the t-test for independent samples were applied from the statistical methods. The statistical program for personal computers, SPSS for Windows version 22, was used for data processing. Analyzing the results of morphological characteristics, it was determined that boys have a higher body mass index (BMI) and skin fold on the back (subscapular) than girls. No differences were found in the skin fold of the upper arm (triceps) and the skin folds on the abdomen (suprailiac). Analyzing the results of motor skills, it was determined that boys are better at reaching in a squat (flexibility), lying/squatting (trunk strength), and resisting in a push-up (functional strength). At the same time, girls are better at the standing long jump (explosive leg strength) and hand strength (static strength). All the mentioned tests were statistically significant at the level of less than 1% (p<0.01), only the flexion endurance test (functional strength) was statistically significant at the level of p<0.05. In the flamingo tests (balance) and running 10x5 m back and forth (running speed and agility), the results were in favor of girls, and in the hand tapping test (movement speed), the results were in favor of boys, but these differences were not statistically significant. It is necessary to act preventively and carry out more frequent tests and measurements of elementary school-aged students to monitor changes in growth and development.

Differences in the Prevalence of Postural Disorders of the Spine in Lower Grades of Elementary School Students

Senad Bajrić, Aida Bačić Bajrić, Osmo Bajrić, Gordan Bajić, Vladan Pelemiš — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The study was conducted on a sample of 146 respondents - lower grade elementary school students, chronological age 7 - 11 years old, in the urban area of the city of Banja Luka. The total sample of respondents was divided into five subsamples according to chronological age. The main objective of the study was to determine the frequency and structure of postural disorders of the spinal column in the studied sample of subjects, as well as the differences in the prevalence of postural disorders with respect to the chronological age of the subjects, using a transversal cross-section. To assess the prevalence and differences in postural disorders of the spinal column, disorders in the sagittal plane (kyphosis and lordosis) and disorders in the frontal plane (scoliosis) were analyzed. The degree of postural disorders of the spinal column was determined using Contingency Tables - calculating frequencies (F) and percentages (%). The statistical significance of the differences in the prevalence of postural disorders of the spinal column in the sagittal (kyphosis and lordosis) and frontal planes (scoliosis) in lower elementary school students was determined using Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and the differences in relation to their chronological age for each type of disorder were determined using the analysis of the results of the Post Hock comparison test. The degree of postural disorders of the spinal column determined by Contingency Tables - by calculating the frequency (F) and percentage (%) indicates a significant percentage of spinal column disorders (kyphosis 21.2%, scoliosis 19.9%, lordosis 19.2%), mainly in the first degree of deformation (minor deviation from the normal status), which allows for correction of the condition with the application of adequate corrective exercises in working with students of this age. The results of the univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) show that the prevalence of kyphosis is statistically significant at the level of statistical significance p<.007 and scoliosis p<.001 in the studied sample of students. The statistical significance of the prevalence of lordosis in the studied sample of students was not determined (p= .255). The results of the LSD Post Hock comparison test show that there is a statistically significant difference in the prevalence of kyphosis and scoliosis between groups of students with regard to their chronological age.

Relations Between the World Record in Running at 100m and Altitude and Wind Speed

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

A sprint is a dynamic and explosive cyclic movement determined by an ability to accelerate, a size of maximum speed and an ability to maintain the speed in relation to an onset of fatigue, so many factors can affect a sprint result, whether they are of an internal nature - motivation, technique, readiness and fatigue, or external - wind direction and strength, altitude, temperature, texture and hardness of substrate. The goal of the research was to determine the connection between altitude and wind speed with the achieved results in the 100m running for men, which are categorized as world records (manually and electronically measured results) and to predict the results depending on altitude and wind speed, and to determine the best achieved times in years in which no world records were recorded and their connection with altitude and wind speed, and to determine the periods of stagnation of the results, in order to determine, after specifying those periods, whether the altitude of the cities where the records were achieved and the wind speed were possible causes of the stagnation measured during the achievement of the results, which would all help to create more optimal conditions for achieving a better result and setting a new record in the 100m running discipline. After all the analyses, that is, by observing the results of recognized world records measured manually and electronically, it can be concluded that the wind speed had a connection and prediction in the achievement of the world record in the period from 1912 to 1968 when the results were measured manually (if the wind increased by 1 ms-1 the result improved by 0.08 sec), while the altitude value had a connection and prediction in the achievement of world records in the period from 1968 to 2009 when the results were recorded by electronic measurement (if the altitude increased by 1m the result improved by 0.00008 sec).

Analysis of Quantitative Changes in Morphological Characteristics of Young Volleyball Players Under the Influence of an Experimental Program

Osmo Bajrić, Sara Obradović, Tatjana Drvenica, Senad Bajrić, Oliver Krička — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The study was conducted on a sample of 50 female respondents - girls from the Primary School “Sveti Sava” and the Primary School “Sutjeska” from Modriča, aged 10 to 12 years, who train volleyball in the Volleyball Club “Modriča - Novoprom” from Modriča, with the aim of determining partial and global quantitative changes in the applied morphological characteristics that occurred under the influence of a specially defined volleyball program lasting six months. The study used a set of 12 variables to assess morphological characteristics measured according to the instructions of the International Biological Program (IBP). To determine partial quantitative changes (differences) of the applied morphological characteristics, the results of the T test analysis were applied, and to determine quantitative changes (differences) of morphological characteristics at the global level, canonical discriminant analysis was applied. The results of the T test and canonical discriminant analysis show that under the influence of the programmed volleyball work for six months, statistically significant partial and global changes (differences) occurred in the space of morphological characteristics that can be attributed to the influence of the applied volleyball program, but changes in the biological growth and development of the subjects that are characteristic of the age group 10-12 years should not be ignored. The obtained results may be useful for coaches of younger volleyball selections in volleyball clubs and volleyball schools, and physical education teachers in quality programming of the training and teaching process with younger age categories of girls.

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on college students’ physical activity and nutrition

Vlora Hyseni, Fatmir Pireva, Shemsedin Vehapi, Branimir Mikić — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

Nutrition plays a crucial role in sports. Diet has an important role in human health, especially when the nutritional needs have to be adjusted for different sports. The aim of this study was to find how did COVID-19 impact nutrition and physical activity among students of AAB college. A survey was conducted among students of AAB College from 12-30 April 2023. The survey link was spread to students using Email. Questionnaire included questions regarding: height, weight, physical activity, nutrition, food supplements, during COVID-19 and after COVID-19. A total of 296 students completed the questionnaire, consisting of 211 females and 85 males. Economics had the highest number of students (22.3%) and Mass Communication had the lowest (2.4%); the statistical test (Chi-square) shows a significant difference between the fields. Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicates a significant difference, there is a notable difference in BMI between during COVID-19 and after COVID-19. Consumption of meat and cereals changed significantly during and after COVID-19 (χ² = 9.33, p = 0.003), χ²= 20.06, p = 0.000. Consumption of fruits, vegetables, dairy products, and foods high in fat, sugar, and salt did not change significantly. Physical activity levels during and after COVID-19 also showed a significant change (χ² = 4.96, p = 0.033), indicating that some students started exercising again. Consumption of meat and cereals changed significantly during and after COVID-19 and the importance of wellbeing (nutrition, physical activity) can be used as an incentive to maintain an active lifestyle and healthy food consumption.

Aerobic Physical Exercise and BMI Values in Students With Overweight

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The modern lifestyle and insufficient physical activity are an increasing problem among the younger generation. The question arises as to how the educational system can influence the resolution of this issue. One way is to introduce additional physical exercise classes within the regular curriculum or to improve the program of organized physical exercise with students. This study analyzed three individual studies that dealt with the impact of organized aerobic physical exercise on BMI values and body fat percentage in adolescent students. In this meta-analysis, standardized mean differences and relative risk with 95% confidence intervals were calculated using random effects. The combined value of the standardized mean difference calculated from the random effects model is 0.32 (95% CI; -2.74; 3.38). The combined RR value from the random effects model is 0.34 (-1.15; 1.83). The RR is not statistically significantly different from one (p=0.6527). No statistically significant difference was observed between students who, in addition to the regular classes, participated in organized aerobic physical exercise aimed at regulating excess weight. Due to the small number of participants, it is not possible to generalize the conclusion in this study.

Use of AI Technology Training on Motor Parameters: Systematic review

Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The aim of this systematic review was to examine the use of AI training technology on motor performance. The research was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines, using the PICOS framework for study selection, and the search included relevant databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, MEDLINE, ERIC and Google Scholar. The final analysis included 16 studies that met strict methodological relevance criteria, and quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. Analysis of the included studies indicates that the most effective programs lasted between 5 and 8 weeks, with a frequency of at least three training sessions per week, while more significant effects were observed with interventions that included personalized feedback and adaptive algorithms. AI systems have shown the potential to improve strength, flexibility, coordination and other motor parameters, providing precise, individualized feedback. Although the results are promising, the variable methodological quality and heterogeneity of the technologies used indicate the need for further research in real-world sports conditions.

Prevalence of Obesity in Younger School-Age Students

Nikola Pavlović, Branimir Mikić, Velimir Miličković, Edisa Šljivić — Wed, 20 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0200

The primary goal of this research is to objectively determine the actual state of nutrition in younger school-aged students, of both sexes, from four primary schools in the Odžaci municipality of the Republic of Serbia. The sample of respondents consisted of younger school age students from four primary schools from the area of the Odžaci municipality (R. Serbia). The total sample of respondents consisted of 93 students of both sexes, of which 42 were boys and 51 were girls. For research needs, basic anthropometric measurements, body height and body weight were applied, and the body mass index (BMI) was calculated based on the aforementioned. The BMI was used for the purpose of assessing the nutrition of respondents - students in individual groups.
All collected data was processed using descriptive and comparative statistics. The arithmetic mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum measurement values were calculated from the descriptive statistics area, while the t test of independent samples was used from the comparative statistics area.
The research results show that the prevalence of obesity among younger school age students is 19.4%, while another 16.1% of students are at risk of obesity. Boys and girls did not differ significantly in BMI. Respondents - older students on average have higher BMI values than younger students, but obesity was not found to be more prevalent in any of the examined age groups.
The obtained results enable the design of strategies for further research on younger school age children, for the purpose of monitoring growth and development, as well as the possibility of determining certain standards of psychophysical preparedness of children for going to school, successful school attendance and inclusion in various physical activity programs.